CHAPTER XI: FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS AND STRUCTURES OF DEFENSE
The following structures and concepts reflect the basic criteria for the organization and general conduct of our National Defense.
1. Defense System structure
The Defense System involves several national authorities, institutions and organizations that coordinate inter-jurisdictional activities, and is based on the society as a whole.
Defense System's aims
The organization of the National Defense System is aimed at managing, governing and administering its sub-systems, so as to accomplish a high level National Defense in accordance with the requirements of the country.
The main goals of the system can be summarized as follows:
* Inception and design of a national defense strategy which should basically include the following elements:
- Threats and risks to national interests, comprising them into scenarios and determining their seriousness and likelihood of occurrence
- The strategic conception to prevent them, avoid them and, if necessary, to cope with them.
* Develop plans to prepare the entire nation for eventual armed conflicts.
* Develop planning activities both at a military and operational strategic level.
* Conduct war in all levels, including the national strategy level.
* Conduct the Armed Forces and sectors in the country affected by the conflict involved at a military and operational strategic level.
* Prepare and execute national mobilization actions.
* Ensure the execution of joint and, eventually, combined military operations.
* Establish points of convergence in order to establish possible alliances.
System components
Members of the Defense System include:
* The President of the Nation and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
* The National Defense Council (CODENA).
* The National Congress, which plays two major roles:
- Exercising its constitutional powers already mentioned in Chapter 4.
- On a daily basis, through the House and Senate Defense Committees and other specialized committees, which hold meetings with the Ministers that assist the Executive Branch, and through annual and periodic reports.
* The Ministry of Defense.
* The Joint Staff of the Armed Forces (JSAF).
* The Army, the Navy and Air Force.
* The Security Forces (National Gendarmerie and Coast Guard), as established by law.
* The Argentine people, through their active involvement in compliance with the laws that require mobilization; civil service and civil defense.
CODENA (National Defense Council)
CODENA is the legal body that provides assistance and advice to the President of the Nation: being the Ministry of Defense its working body.
Permanent members
- The President, who chairs the Council and will adopts decisions in all cases.
- The Vice-President.
- The Ministers
- The chief of the highest-level intelligence agency.
Optional members
- The chairman of the Defense Committees from both Houses of Congress
- Two members from such Committees, one for the majority party and one for the minority
Possible members
- The Chief of the Joint Staff of the Armed Forces, accompanying the Minister of Defense at the latter's convenience.
- The Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force General Staffs, accompanying the Minister of Defense at the latter's convenience.
Occasional participants
- Other authorities or members of other government branches or specialists, as determined by the President.
Whenever the President may deem necessary, a reduced CODENA team is summoned to act as a Defense cabinet to advise and assist him in the exercise of his political and strategic conduct of Defense matters, crisis management and supervision.
National Defense Council's Secretariat (SECODENA)
This body is headed by the Secretary of Military Affairs under the Ministry of Defense, who uses his own organization. Its mission is to promote and implement the necessary actions to assist the CODENA or the Defense cabinet.
The following are the SECODENA's working teams created to accomplish its mission:
- National Strategy Working Team (GRUTEN)
- National Strategy Action Team (GAEN)
- National Mobilization Working Team (GRUMOVI)
These teams are formed by personnel from the Ministry, the Armed Forces and the concerned government organizations.
Crisis Committee
This organization assists and advises the President of the Nation in the military conduct of war and the management of Operational Strategic Commands.
Its members are the following:
- The Minister of Defense, who is in charge of coordinating its actions.
- The Chief of the Joint Staff of the Armed Forces
- The Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force General Staffs.
- The Joint Staff of the Armed Forces will be its working body, and its Deputy Chief will act as the Committee's Secretary.
Service Chiefs of Staff Committee (COMIJEM)
As we have seen, the idea of jointness plays an essential role in the Defense policy and is considered one of the cornerstones of the system.
This joint body was created in order to help achieve the above mentioned objective. The Chief of the Joint Staff chairs the COMIJEM and the Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force General Staffs are the members to this committee, which ensures and provides for the continuity of such activities aimed at enhancing jointness. As a result of its similarity to the Crisis Committee, the COMIJEM can perform both roles.
The COMIJEM reports to the Ministry of Defense and its main missions are the following:
* To be responsible for:
- Setting priorities regarding resources necessary to meet operational requirements.
- Integrating and/or complementing communications and electronic warfare.
* To be involved in:
- Military organizational changes aimed at implementing jointness.
- Military mobilization requirements.
- Military strategic intelligence.
* To participate in:
- The production of the annual budget for the Armed Forces and the pertinent general plan for equipping them.
* Assist the Minister of Defense in:
- Issues concerning human resources required for the Armed Forces reserve.
- Producing the Armed Forces Joint Mobilization Plan.
- The coordination of Armed Forces' common aspects, especially as regards administration, legal matters and logistics.
The Armed Forces
The Armed Forces of Argentina comprise the Army, Navy and Air Force.
They constitute the Military Instrument of our National Defense and include personnel and equipment organized under a chain of command responsible for the conduct of all its subordinates.
The Armed Forces have to comply with an internal discipline regime and are governed in their actions by national and international laws applicable to armed conflict. This is one of the pillars of our country's defense policy.
The Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force General Staffs report to the Minister of Defense by delegation from the President and maintain a functional relation with the Joint Staff as regards joint military actions.
Responsibility of the Security Forces
The Security Forces include the National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Coast Guard. In 1996, as part of the comprehensive Government Reform process, a political decision was made to transfer both organizations from the area of the Ministry of Defense to the Ministry of the Interior. This decision was embodied in Executive Branch Decree No. 660.
One of the security Forces' basic missions as regards national defense is the control and surveillance of our borders, surrounding waters, and the custody of strategic facilities. Under current legislation that integrates these forces into the System of National Defense, their human resources and equipment, or a part of them, will be assigned to the Strategic Operational Commands and territorial commands, in accordance with the evolution of the conflict involved and the pertinent planning.
2. Basis for territorial and operational organization
The President is empowered by law to establish Theaters of Operations, determining the corresponding geographic areas. Commanders-in-Chief (CINC's) are appointed by the President and report to him directly: they are responsible for the military conduct of operations in the assigned territory.
In such cases, the powers of constitutional authorities remain in full force, and the Commander of the Theater of Operations must coordinate with the civilian authority the actions required to accomplish his mission.
In the case of a federal intervention pursuant to Article 6 of our National Constitution, an exception to this principle will be made only if circumstances make it absolutely unavoidable. Even in this case, the Judiciary will retain its full powers.
With the previous approval of Congress, The President can define military areas subject to military custody and protection on account of National Defense reasons.
On the other hand, the military strategic planning process might require the establishment of Strategic Areas, Operational Strategic Commands and Territorial Commands. The President of the Nation commits forces with the advice of the Crisis Committee. Their Commanders report directly to the President in case of an armed conflict, and to the Ministry of Defense - through the Joint Staff - for planning and training purposes.
3. Defense System - Its operation, Decision Levels and Scope
The President manages National Defense in his capacity of Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces, under the terms established by our National Constitution.
With the advice of the CODENA, the President determines the contents and guidelines required to elaborate the National Defense planning.
The President is also in charge of both the general and military conduct of war, with the advice and assistance of the CODENA and the Crisis Committee respectively.
The participation of National Congress members in the System as per our National Constitution enables access of parliamentary representatives into the system.
The Minister of Defense manages, organizes and coordinates all Defense activities and tasks other than those reserved or performed directly by the President.
CODENA participates in the process of identifying potential conflicts, adopting strategies and in the coordination of plans and actions required for conflict resolution. Therefore, a warning mechanism that considers predictable conflict situations and the appropriate response to each situation must be implemented and followed up.
As already mentioned, there will be occasions in which the president will resort to the Defense Cabinet.
The support to CODENA is provided by its Secretary, essentially through the organization of work teams specialized in strategy and mobilization.
The Joint Staff assists and advises the Minister of Defense on military strategy and participates in the Joint Military Planning according to the guidelines provided by the President through the Minister of Defense.
The Chiefs of the Army, Navy and Air Force General Staffs are in charge of managing their respective organizations. They conduct the preparation for war of their respective operational elements and the logistic support therefor. They also provide advice to the Joint Staff of the Armed Forces in joint military planning activities as regards the components, dimension and deployment of their Forces.
The Operational Strategic Commanders do not report to the Chiefs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force General Staffs but to political authorities, namely the President in case of an armed conflict or the Minister of Defense in normal situations. In other words, the decision on the use of military forces is in the hands of representatives democratically elected by society, whereas the Chiefs of the Armed Forces only provide for military force organization, training, readiness and logistic support.
Figure 11-1 illustrates the structure and operation of the Defense System described above.
4. Rules of Engagement
We have already mentioned the legal provisions for the conduct of military operations according to the rules of national and international law.
This legal premise implies that, military commanders must receive, in addition to the classical orders for their mission, tasks and the way to execute them, special instructions with clear and accurate guidelines on the effective use of force.
These provisions are especially necessary in the current strategic environment as well as in a situation of conflict, given the large diversity of situations that may arise apart from those typical of a classical war.
Rules of engagement are especially important during crises, so as avoid unwanted escalation of conflict, in situations of tension and even when necessary to prevent such situation -which sometimes arise from wrong perceptions of actions and attitudes adopted by military forces even unintentionally.
These instructions are known in the world as Rules of Engagement. They are issued by the competent authority and define the circumstances and limits to which the forces will start or continue an armed engagement with other forces.
Rules of Engagement. Objectives
These rules represent a key element in the use of military force based on national objectives and their overall aims are:
- To provide standard guidelines in times of peace.
- To enable to control the transition to a crisis and from a crisis to a war.
- To control combat operations once forces become involved in an armed conflict.
Their specific objectives are the following:
- Political objectives: To ensure that our national policy is followed in the military sphere.
- Military objectives: To provide security to the forces and prevent the possibility of an unwanted reaction from the opponent.
- Legal objectives: To ensure that operations are executed according to the law.
Thus, the Rules of Engagement represent an inter-relationship between our national policy, the law and the military operation requirements.
Among other aspects, the Rules of Engagement also provides for the definition of a "hostile act", restrictions and conditions to open fire, the size and duration of the attack to be deployed, target limitations, tactical, technical and geographical space restrictions, etc.
These Rules are especially useful in unclear conflict situations and can be issued by the highest political-diplomatic level of the Nation. They are subsequently incorporated into the operating instructions of military authorities using the appropriate operational terminology.
In brief, the Rules of Engagement represent a practical tool that provides rationality, proportion and humanity to the use of military force.
Some actual examples of the application of this instrument by our country are the following:
- Permanent orders given to our Armed Forces between 1982 and 1990 (when diplomatic relations were restored with Great Britain) regarding British military forces stationed in, or in transit to, the Malvinas Islands. It is important to note that certain Rules of Engagement common to both countries' military were added to the II Madrid agreements -which formalized that restoration- to prevent undesired misunderstandings in the military field which might affect the political and diplomatic process aimed at restoring relations between both countries.
- Rules incorporated -upon instructions of the Foreign Ministry- to operating orders for the Argentine Naval Task Force providing logistic support to the international coalition involved in the Gulf war in 1991, under a UN mandate.
- These concepts were incorporated into the curricula of regular courses of the Command and Staff College and at the Argentine PKO Joint Training Center (CAECOPAZ), because Peacekeeping Operations are a field where these guidelines are especially necessary.
Our country's regular use of this mechanism again reflects the effective application of political guidelines at the decision-making level.
5. Joint Military Intelligence System - Parliamentary Oversight
The National Intelligence System comprises all the intelligence agencies of the country, regardless of whether they report to the National Government or to the provinces.
It is a functional, non-hierarchical organization, which implies that agencies forming the system are not linked by command relationships but by coordination lines.
The head of the system who carries out management and coordination activities is the State Intelligence Secretary in his capacity as Chairman of the National Intelligence Office (Central Nacional de Inteligencia), which reports directly to the President of the Nation.
Figures 11-2 and 11-3 illustrate the system and its levels of activity.
The top organization in the system is the National Intelligence Office.
The Joint Military Intelligence System
Military Intelligence organizations constitute a particular subsystem within the National Intelligence System called the Joint Military Intelligence System. Its organization is shown in Figure 11-4.
This system reports to the President of the Nation through the Minister of Defense, whose main advisory organization is the Joint Military Intelligence Committee.
Thus Committee, chaired by the Minister of Defense, is formed by Ministry and by Armed Forces representatives.
The structure of the Joint Military Intelligence System is based on functional relationships between its members and not on a command chain. The Chief of Intelligence of the Joint Staff coordinates the whole system and provides the guidelines required to obtain and produce military strategic intelligence only, i.e. information on specifically military and Defense matters.
From the organizational point of view, every Service intelligence organization reports to its respective Chief of Staff and its personnel and budget come from its own Service.
All military intelligence activities address only foreign issues since, according to the National Defense Act, such matters related to domestic policies of the country cannot be considered -in whatsoever manner- as conflict hypothesis or scenarios for any military intelligence agency.
Finally, it is important to note that all intelligence activities, including those in the military, are under the permanent oversight and supervision of the National Congress Committee set up to that end.
CHAPTER XII: THE MINISTRY OF DEFENSE
The previous chapter included several references to the Ministry of Defense. To clarify its functions, we will now proceed to a detailed description of this Ministry's role as the political head of the National Defense area, entrusted to it by the President of the Nation, whom it assists in all matters related to this area of government and in the relationship with the Armed Forces.
1. Main Functions
The Ministry is responsible for, or participates in, the following areas:
- Setting its objectives and policies and executing plans, programs and projects developed in accordance with the guidelines issued by the National Executive Branch.
- Determining National Defense requirements.
- Developing the draft budget of the Armed Forces and coordinating and allocating the relevant budgets.
- Coordinating logistic activities of the Armed Forces.
- Planning, managing and executing research and development activities of interest for Defense.
- Developing the policy and plans for national mobilization, including the reserves.
- Coordinating aspects common to all Armed Forces.
- Managing the joint organizations that report to it.
- Proposing the number of personnel from the Services as well as their distribution and, on a yearly basis, their promotions.
- Administering military justice and discipline through its relevant courts.
- Coordinating the execution of Antarctic activities.
- Determining joint military planning requirements.
- Developing and applying principles and regulations for Armed Forces operation and employment.
2. Ministry's organization
The Ministry of Defense was restructured by decree No. 1277 issued by the National Executive on November 7, 1996.
Its structure was reorganized by:
- An adaptation of its functions
- A consolidation of activities
- The elimination of duplications
- The upgrade of the command structure
- The elimination of one Secretariat, one Under-Secretariat and six General Directorates, and personnel reduction by 30%.
The reduction in expenses resulting from these changes, the transfer of the Ministry's headquarters and the Joint Staff to the Libertador Building (headquarters of the Army General Staff) in 1997, and the funds derived from the disposition of real estate, generated resources which were allocated to the modernization of the military.
The following Secretaries and Undersecretaries report to the Ministry. These units carry out the functions described below and their organizational features are shown in Figure 12-1.
Secretary for Military Affairs
This Secretary is the Vice-Minister and his main functions are to conduct the Joint Military Planning, propose national Defense and Armed Forces' general management policies, develop logistics, National Defense education, military education and training policies, and provide advice on the Services' international activities.
In another sphere, the Secretary develops and controls the implementation of research and development objectives, policies and plans for the area, in coordination with national plans in this sector.
One of his objectives is to promote jointness in his area of competence, and to coordinate this activity with other units under his responsibility.
He also participates in inter-ministerial actions related to the license for arms exports and the resolution of discrepancies regarding sensitive material.
In addition, he coordinates organizations that administer military justice and discipline and sports activities for the Armed Forces personnel.
The following units report to this Secretary:
- The Under-Secretary for Policy and Strategy: This is the branch supporting the Secretary for Military Affairs. The Policy and Logistics General Directorates, the Armed Forces Scientific and Technical Institute (CITEFA) and the National Antarctic Directorate (D.N.A.) report to it.
- Organizations related to military justice, national defense education and military sports.
Secretary for Planning and Reorganization
This Secretary centralizes coordinates and controls National Defense budgetary requirements.
It is involved in the reorganization of the Armed Forces and promotes jointness in terms of personnel, accounting, budget, health care and other areas.
It also coordinates the economic, financial, human, organizational, IT and administrative resources, with the aim of strengthening the institutional and operating capabilities of the Ministry and the Armed Forces.
It is involved in restructuring and deregulation policies, and promotes the transfer of this sector's companies, organizations and assets.
Finally, it ensures financing for research and development plans in the Defense area and promotes their management control.
The following units report to this Secretary:
- The Under-Secretary for Administrative and Financial Management. The Administration and Human Resources General Directorates report to this Under-Secretary.
- The General Planning Directorate
- The General Reorganization Coordination Directorate.
Under-Secretary for Technical Coordination
Because of the nature of his activities, this under-secretary reports directly to the Minister, and carries out administrative documentation dispatching, follow up and filing activities.
He also coordinates the legal office and participates in all law and regulation's drafting activities related to the sector.
On the other hand, he provides advice on the legality of administrative acts, carries out their institutional defense and files disciplinary administrative proceedings.
Lastly, he supervises the national weapons register (RENAR) as provided for in the National Weapons and Explosives Act No. 20429.
The General Legal Affairs Directorate, General Secretary and Summary Directorates act within the sphere of this Under-Secretary.
Other organizations
The following are some of the decentralized organizations under the Ministry of Defense:
- The Military Geographic Institute (I.G.M.): Act No. 22963 and its amending act No. 24943 establish the mission of the I.G.M., which is to develop basic official maps and to keep them permanently updated. It is also in charge of supervising and approving all publications circulating within the country where all or part of the territory of the Argentine Republic is described or represented.
- The Financial Assistance Institute for Military Retirement and Pensions (I.A.F.) is in charge of paying all military retirement and pension benefits (see Chapter 20).
Finally, the Internal Audit Unit (UAI) examines and evaluates all the matters related to the Ministry's activities, exercising comprehensive and integrated controls based on economy, efficiency and effectiveness criteria.
3. Ministry Personnel
Unlike other countries where the defense ministry's staff combines civilian and military personnel in active duty who fill different hierarchical positions, the organization chart of the Ministry of Defense does not contemplate any positions for military personnel in such category.
The personnel base is mostly civilian, while professional military advice is permanently provided by the Joint Staff of the Armed Forces, which in turn assists the various areas of the Ministry both horizontally and directly.
Though some positions are filled by retired military personnel, their presence is considered as individuals and is based only on political reasons or on their personal skills.
CHAPTER XIII: THE JOINT STAFF OF THE ARMED FORCES
1. Role
The political vision of the need for integrated actions on the part of the Armed Forces was conceived some decades ago.
In 1949, presidential decree No. 1775 created the Coordination Staff, which at the time reported to the President of the Nation.
The Ministry Act enacted in 1958 transferred the Coordination Staff to the Ministry of Defense. Later, in 1966, it was reorganized into the Joint Staff (Act No. 16970) and in 1969, through Decree No. 739, its name was changed to the current denomination of Joint Staff of the Armed Forces.
Main Functions
According to the National Defense Act, the basic role of the Joint Staff is to assist and advise the Minister of Defense as regards military strategy, and participate in the following issues:
- Developing joint military planning activities
- Controlling the operational strategic planning
- Developing a joint military doctrine
- Ensuring the efficiency of joint military actions
- Conducting joint military training activities
After the new frame law on reorganization, the role of this organization as regards logistical issues has been enhanced through the assignment of the following new responsibilities:
- Assist and advise the Minister of Defense on the suitability and acceptability of equipment envisaged in the joint military planning.
- Advise on matters involving urgent equipment requirements proposed by the Armed Forces according to their suitability and consistency with joint planning requirements.
- Coordinate the tasks undertaken as a result of the Military Instrument´s reorganization whenever it is required to develop or integrate joint actions.
The guidelines for the Joint Staff functions are established by the President directly or through the Ministry of Defense.
2. Organizational structure
In August 1997, the Minister of Defense, with the approval of the President and exercising his legal powers, adopted the political decision to modify the organization of the Joint Staff. This was done under Resolution No. 1087/97, in order to enhance the reorganization of the Armed Forces following the Government Reform and Modernization process established by Executive Decree No. 558/96.
As a result of the structural modernization, the Joint Staff´s operation was optimized according to its mission and main functions. Administrative tasks became more efficient and were redefined, and a personnel reduction of 37% was achieved.
A schematic description of the Joint Staff organization is shown in Figure 13-1, including the number of personnel assigned to it. Such personnel comes from the three Armed Forces in an even proportion, so as to promote jointness in all functions and tasks.
3. Jointness
Although the word "joint" was known to the Armed Forces a long time ago, the concept of "jointness" had not been applied thoroughly for long.
It was only after the bitter experience of the Malvinas Islands conflict of 1982 that the need to coordinate, harmonize and integrate ground, naval and air forces was recognized. Since then, the criterion of jointness began to prevail and joint exercises were increased as well as the responsibilities of the Joint Staff of the Armed Forces.
The new duties conferred by the Reorganization Act to the Joint Staff tend to emphasize this trend. The Act emphasizes the concept of "jointness" in different areas.
Based on the Argentine defensive and deterrent strategy, jointness is developed between the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. Although each has its own resources to comply with its specific functions, jointness reinforces their capabilities and strengthens their power, flexibility, mobility and speed, thus enhancing their operational level as a whole.
Experience - especially in Peacekeeping Operations such as in Cyprus - indicates that objectives have best been met when acting jointly. Moreover, the control of these operations, once the forces have left the country, is the responsibility of the Joint Staff. A similar concept is applied in the case of Strategic Areas, which arise from Joint Military Planning and report the Joint Staff in terms of planning and training.
It is important to mention that the concept of the Argentine Joint Staff is that of a "coordinator" and that the General Staffs of the Armed Forces do not report to it but to the President through the Minister of Defense.
This approach leaves the Armed Forces sufficient freedom to carry out their specific training, while ensuring political leadership control over military operations.
Jointness guiding principles
Jointness is based on an attitude involving organizations and persons and, in practice, based on the following concepts:
- Unified command
- Maximum integration of available forces
- Synergetic use of all capabilities
- Mutual support
- Shared doctrine
 |
 |
 |